Learning differences emerge when working memory and long-term memory don’t interact smoothly. These two systems shape how children process information, retrieve knowledge and complete everyday classroom tasks. Understanding both is key to supporting pupils with learning differences in a fair, strengths-based way.

Why Working Memory And Long-Term Memory Matter For Understanding Learning Differences

Working memory and long-term memory matter because they influence almost every aspect of learning,  from reading and spelling to following instructions and expressing ideas. Research shows that children with weaker working memory often struggle to use knowledge they genuinely understand, which affects SEN identification. Strong long-term knowledge alone isn’t enough if a pupil cannot hold steps in mind while completing a task.

Working memory manages short bursts of information, while long-term memory stores phonics patterns, vocabulary, background knowledge and strategies. When the working memory “gateway” is limited, learners may lose track, skip words, forget instructions or freeze during writing despite a strong understanding.

Studies in literacy development show this imbalance is common in pupils with specific learning differences. For teachers, recognising this pattern supports more accurate, compassionate SEN identification and helps avoid mislabelling a capable pupil as inattentive or unmotivated. 

What Working Memory Does During Reading And Writing

Working memory supports the active, moment-to-moment processes needed for reading and writing. It allows children to decode words, hold sounds in order, track sentence meaning, and organise ideas before they appear on the page. When working memory capacity is low, these steps compete with one another, causing overload.

A learner may decode a word but forget the start of the sentence. They may plan what they want to say, but lose it halfway through writing. Research by Baddeley and others shows that working memory underpins many executive-function skills, including attention shifting and task management.

Many learners with executive-function challenges experience this tension daily. Their ideas are often strong, but the cognitive “workspace” is small, making tasks slower or more error-prone. Recognising this helps teachers adjust task length, break instructions into steps, and reduce unnecessary load. 

How Long-Term Memory Stores Language, Patterns And Retrieval Strategies:

Long-term memory stores the knowledge children draw on automatically: phonics rules, familiar word patterns, vocabulary, background knowledge, and writing strategies. When these become fluent, pupils can read and write with confidence because they retrieve information quickly and effortlessly.

But retrieval speed varies. Some learners have strong understanding but slower access to stored knowledge, which affects accuracy and fluency. They may “know the rule” but struggle to recall it under pressure. Similarly, they may understand a topic well but need extra time to retrieve the right words or steps.

Strengths in long-term memory, such as deep vocabulary knowledge or strong conceptual understanding, can be powerful assets. When paired with reduced working memory capacity, however, pupils often experience the familiar pattern of “I know this, but I can’t get it out fast enough.” Supporting retrieval through repetition, scaffolds and visual cues builds confidence and reduces frustration. 

Case Examples & Research: When Memory Profiles Explain Why Children ‘Know It But Can’t Show It’

Many classroom behaviours become clearer through the lens of neurodiversity and memory profiles. A child may contribute confidently in discussions yet freeze when writing. Another may read aloud well but cannot summarise a paragraph. A third may forget multi-step instructions seconds after hearing them. Research across literacy and cognitive psychology highlights how working memory bottlenecks can limit how reliably long-term knowledge is used.

Studies included in the research base show that pupils with specific learning differences often have strong conceptual knowledge but inconsistent performance when tasks require sustained processing. These inconsistencies aren’t signs of low ability; they reflect the cognitive load placed on working memory.

Seeing these patterns helps teachers identify what a pupil can do independently versus what becomes challenging when tasks demand simultaneous processing. This understanding supports more equitable differentiation, reduces misinterpretation of behaviours, and encourages a strengths-first approach.  

How Memory Profiles Inform Early Intervention And Tools That Support Teachers

Understanding memory profiles enables earlier and more precise early intervention. When teachers know whether a learner’s difficulty is rooted in working memory, retrieval, or both, support becomes more targeted and effective.

Modern tools can help highlight these patterns early, giving teachers clearer information about where load is highest and where scaffolds are needed. Recognising memory demands reduces the risk of misunderstanding a pupil’s effort or potential and supports fairer learning decisions.

Conclusion

Working memory and long-term memory shape how children experience learning differences. When teachers understand these systems, they can support pupils more confidently and help them show what they truly know. This approach leads to fairer support, stronger progress, and a more inclusive classroom for every learner. If you’d like to explore how Talamo can help surface these insights early, you can speak to us here.

References:

Journal Articles & Academic Sources

Brett, D. T., Baxendale, S., & Cullum, M. (2019). Working memory and dyslexia: A review of the literature. Frontiers in Psychology. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6808376/

Author(s) Not Listed. (Year Not Listed). Working memory and learning difficulties. In Assessment and Intervention in Developmental Dyslexia: A Neuropsychological Perspective (Chapter). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203926906-12

Wright, B. A., & Zhang, X. (2001). Learning and memory in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities. American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-15428-004

Swanson, H. L. (1993). Working memory in learning disability classifications: An exploratory study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(10), 656–666. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00375122

Smith-Spark, J. H., & Fisk, J. E. (2004). Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia. Memory, 12(4), 349–362. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01762337